Figure 1: Image of Quan Yin or the bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara. Picture taken by Deborah de Koning, 17 June 2023, Plum Village (France).

Faced by the challenges of climate change religious people search within their traditions to find examples of how to live their lives in the present time of climate crisis. Frequently, the selected exemplary green role model is not the founder or the one keeping the highest position in the pantheon or hierarchy of a particular religion. On the contrary, the designation of a green role model is often applied to people who were predominantly involved in earthly (and sometimes ‘dirty’) matters instead of heavenly business. An outstanding example of a green role model from Western Christianity is Francis of Assisi (1181-1226), a roman catholic saint.

In ‘The Historical Roots of our Ecological Crisis’ (1967) Lynn White Jr. holds Western Christianity responsible for the ecological crisis. According to White, Western Christianity advocates the unique position of humans. He presents Saint Francis of Assisi as a spiritual revolutionary to this Western Christian perspective: Francis preached the democracy of all creatures and is praised by White as the ‘patron saint for ecologists’.[1] In 1979 Pope John Paul II made a similar statement about Francis of Assisi. He declared him the patron saint of ecologists.[2] Francis’ Canticle of the sun – in which he addresses elements to praise god – is nowadays very popular among green Christians.

The imagery of this Christian eco-saint often displays him surrounded by animals, especially the wolf and the lamb of which his hagiography provides us with an inspiring story (see Figure 2). It is said that the people of Gubbio suffered from the attacks of a wolf on their livestock. The wolf also started to attack humans and everyone was afraid. Francis told the people that he was going to meet the wolf. When Francis encountered the wolf, it approached him with open jaws. Francis made the sign of the cross and the wolf subjected himself to Francis instead of attacking him. Francis and the wolf then came to a mutual agreement: the people of Gubbio would provide the wolf with food and quid pro quo the wolf would no longer attack the people of Gubbio and their livestock.[3]

Figure 2: Image of Saint Francis of Assisi and the wolf. Picture derived from: https://www.standrewschurchsupply.com/-p-35687.html 

The contemporary selections of stories from Francis of Assisi’s life do not provide a balanced picture of the life of this saint. In St. Francis of Assisi and Nature: Tradition and Innovation in Western Christian Attitudes toward the Environment Roger D. Sorell argues that ‘[t]oday, Francis has proven too relevant - some of his ideas and attitudes seem to relate to current thought so well that they almost demand to be plucked out of context and taken up into contemporary modes of thinking that distort their original sense and place them at the mercy of modern values and expectations.’[4] Do other religions also have key figures that are remodeled as green role models in the context of climate change? If we apply this question to Buddhism: who qualifies for green bodhisattva in the context of contemporary eco-Buddhism?

 

Bodhisattvas and compassion in Mahayana Buddhism

A well-known figure within Buddhism is the bodhisattva. Bodhisattva can be translated as ‘Buddha-to-be’ and is applied in different ways within the two dominant schools of Buddhism: in Theravada Buddhism or ‘the school of the elders’ the bodhisattva concept is mainly used to refer to the life stories of the previous lives of the historical Gautama Buddha. Those stories can be found in the popular Jatakas. The approximately 550 Jatakas illustrate the path to Buddhahood on which the Buddha-to-be has to master several key virtues of Buddhism.[5]

In the Mahayana (‘great vehicle’) school of Buddhism the bodhisattva concept has a wider application. Bodhisattva is applied to those who aim for enlightenment (bodhi) not for themselves but for all sentient beings. Bodhisattvas are characterized by compassion and wisdom – and famous bodhisattvas function as models for all Buddhists who take the bodhisattva vow. Related to the bodhisattva concept is bodhicitta or the ‘awakened mind’. Those who strive to end all the sufferings of others are considered the most superior beings who generate bodhicitta from deep compassion (karuna) for the suffering of others.[6]

In Mahayana Buddhism the bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara is the most popular one. Avalokiteshvara is sometimes presented as the incarnated compassion. Paul Williams writes that Avalokiteshvara is considered the ‘most wonderful compassionate saviour of the universe, constantly and tirelessly acting with all the powers of a tenth-level Bodhisattva for the benefit of all sentient beings without discrimination. As such, Avalokiteśvara is said to be the veritable incarnation of all the Buddhas’ compassion, their essence, and very reason for being.”[7] The iconography of Avalokiteshvara also points in the direction of his compassionate efforts: with thousand arms he tries to save all sentient beings. Avalokiteshvara’s virtue of compassion and the vow to save all beings also appeal to eco-Buddhists. However, when it comes to a distinctive ‘green’ bodhisattva another one enters the stage: Ksitigarbha.

  

Ksitigarbha: what’s in the name?

Similar to other bodhisattvas Ksitigarbha is a compassionate being who aims for the liberation of all beings. His name means ‘earth store’ or ‘earth womb’ and he received this name because he was appointed as guardian of the earth until the future buddha Maitreya will enter the world.[8] Ksitigarbha is particularly associated with the domain of hell. It is believed that Ksitigarbha has taken the vow to save all beings from hell before he allows himself to be enlightened. Because his association with hell, statues of him can be found in China at multiple Buddhist sites where ancestor rituals are performed.[9] In Chinese Buddhism Ksitigarbha is known as Jizo.

In the Buddhist Plum Village Tradition – an international branch of Zen Buddhism started by the Vietnamese Buddhist monk Thich Nath Hanh – Ksitigarbha is interpreted as a model of green bodhisattva-hood. The Plum Village Tradition has its headquarters in France and it is famous for the practice of mindfulness and engaged Buddhism. It is no wonder that in times of climate change their engagement also involves climate activism. The Plum Village Tradition has a particular eco-themed sangha (‘community’) which is called the Earth Holder sangha. Climate change was also a topic very close to Thich Nath Hanh’s heart. Shortly before his passing away in 2022 his Zen and the Art of Saving the Planet (2021) was published.

In Zen and the Art of Saving the Planet Ksitigarbha is amongst other bodhisattvas praised for his great compassion. Ksitigarbha’s vow and name are in the context of eco-Buddhism particularly relevant in the process of ‘green remodeling’ of this bodhisattva. Ksitigarbha’s vow is relevant because he is believed to have a great affinity with suffering. According to the stories he did not eschew the suffering of hell. Thich Nath Hanh describes that in the present time hells manifest themselves on this earth for example in conflicts within families and between and within nations. There are however still many (young) people who devote themselves selflessly to help other people in miserable places in the world. They follow the example of Ksitigarbha by helping without accusing people. Like Ksitigarbha they aim to stop anxiety, anger, and violence by offering understanding, compassion, and help.[10]

In a lecture that Terry Cortes-Vega delivered to her Plum Blossom sangha (‘community’) in Austin – part of the Plum Village Tradition – she illustrates the particular relevance of Ksitigarbha as a Buddhist exemplary figure in the climate crisis. Firstly, she compares the characteristics of Ksitigarbha – via the first part of his name – to ones she also ascribes to the earth. The name of this bodhisattva, she explains, is translated as ‘Earth Store', ‘because of his vastness, stillness, patience, deepness, equanimity, and generosity. Like Mother Earth, Bodhisattva Ksitigarbha is able to make countless beings grow. Like Mother Earth, he has endless, boundless treasures for us to uncover.’[11] Ksitigarbha thus embodies some exemplary virtues – predominantly related to ‘selflessness’ – that are in the context of climate engagement also ascribed to the personification of the Earth as a (nurturing and providing) Mother.[12]

Secondly, Earth as a living entity (Mother) becomes in the green remodeling of Ksitigarbha also the subject of Ksitigarbha’s vow. He will save all beings from suffering, in particular – since his specialty is the domain of hell – those who suffer most. Terry Cortes-Vega emphasizes that applied to the contemporary context of climate change Ksitigarbha’s mission focuses in particular on saving animals, plants, and minerals, and our Mother Earth. In this way, Ksitigarbha functions as an exemplary role model to eco-Buddhists. Cortes-Vega addresses her audience to set the same goals as Ksitigarbha: ‘We look for ways to bring freedom and ease to animals….and forests…. and the air, the soil, bodies of water. Like Ksitigarbha, Bodhisattva Earth Store, we vow to help liberate our Earth and all beings who call her Mother.’[13] Ksitigarbha is thus a green role model for climate-engaged Buddhists because he embodies the same selfless and compassionate virtues that are in the context of climate change often ascribed to Mother Earth. At the same time, Mother Earth who suffers, is part of Ksitigarbha’s specific mission to save those who suffer most – in the context of climate change his vow is extended to nature, plants, animals, and Mother Earth.

 

The imagery of Ksitigarbha and the dog

Just like Francis of Assisi and the wolf, the imagery of Ksitigarbha also comes with an animal that sometimes resembles a dog (see Figure 3). This animal is named Diting. Diting is a divine beast, sometimes depicted as a dog-like creature with characteristics of a dragon, a lion and/or a unicorn. In some Chinese folk legends, the connection of Ksitigarbha with Diting is attributed to the story of the eight-century prince Gim Gyo-gak and his dog. Gim Gyo-gak was a prince from Korea who came with his white dog to China to be ordained. He passed away during sitting-meditation with his dog by his side. When the body of Gim Gyo-gak was found, his bones resembled metal chains. This was considered an auspicious sign. People then recognized Gim Gyo-gak as an incarnation of Ksitigarbha bodhisattva. They built a temple and enshrined the body of Gim Gyo-gak together with the dog. The latter was also given a divine status.[14]

Figure 3: Statue of Ksitigarbha and Diting. Picture derived from ebay on September 24, 2024.

Although the legends of Diting and Ksitigarbha are not well-known, the imagery of Ksitigarbha accompanied by a dog-like creature is there (see Figure 3). Similarly to the catholic saint Francis of Assisi who is often depicted as surrounded by animals (including the wolf), such imagery is relevant for the green remodeling of a saint or bodhisattva within a religious tradition. The imagery helps people to literally and figuratively complete the picture of the bodhisattva or the saint as a green saint or bodhisattva who related to non-human creatures.

[1]  L. White (1967).“The Historical Roots of Our Ecologic Crisis.” Science 155 (3767), 1203–1207.

[2] https://www.earthday.org/patron-saint-animals-ecology/ (accessed on 18 September 2024).

[3] https://fcc-winchester.com/latest-news/the-story-of-the-wolf-of-gubbio-and-st-francis-of-assisi/ (accessed on 18 September 2024).

[4] R. D. Sorrell (1988). St. Francis of Assisi and Nature: Tradition and Innovation in Western Christian Attitudes toward the Environment. New York: Oxford University Press, 5.

[5] N. Appleton (2010). JāTaka Stories in Theravāda Buddhism: Narrating the Bodhisatta Path. Farnham, Surrey, England: Ashgate 5, 137.

[6] P. Williams (2008). Mahayana Buddhism: The doctrinal foundations (2nd ed.). New York: Routledge, 57-58, 195.

[7] Ibidem, 221.

[8] Ibidem, 229.

[9] T. Lewis, T. (2014). Buddhists Understanding Buddhism Through the Lives of Practitioners. Newark: John Wiley & Sons, 80-85.

[10] Thich Nhat Hanh, Met zen de planeet redden [translated by Ronald Hermsen]. Utrecht: Ten Have 2022, 172-174.

[11] https://plumblossomsangha.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/ksitigarbha.pdf (accessed on 24 September 2024).

[12] See for a critical evaluation of the gendering of the earth as feminine: N. Apeldoorn, ‘Love your Mother': Gendered Protest Signs from the Dutch Climate March 2023 (blogpost), 25 June 2024; https://religionclimate.odoo.com/blog/our-blog-1/love-your-mother-gendered-protest-signs-from-the-dutch-climate-march-2023-25

[13] https://plumblossomsangha.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/ksitigarbha.pdf (accessed on 24 September 2024).

[14] https://write.as/h8bl9qm53ezrn (accessed on 18 September 2024).